Introduction

In the last three decades, there has been considerable quantitative research done by the researchers concerning bullying in schools and this research has been very useful in knowing its pros and cons. This research has helped in the determination and evaluation of the extent of bullying as a major problem. Researchers have also determined the causes and consequences of bullying.

Strong points of Bullying

It has also found out the culprits who are usually involved in bullying along with their types and genders. Both the offenders and victims experience and suffer tremendously due to the menace of bullying. According to the quantitative research, there are a number of adverse effects of bullying on the psychology and social behavior of the sufferers (see Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Kumpulainen, 2008; Nansel, Craig, Overpeck, Saluja, Ruan, and the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Bullying Analyses Working Group (2004); Srabstein & Piazza 2008). Research on bullying has also been successful in exploring the behavioral patterns and views related to it. Not only this, the phenomenon is now well understood. Despite the fact that research done on the mentioned issue is almost always quantitative, researchers have also studied this issue by using qualitative methods for the collection of data. They have spent the last decade in analyzing this gathered data for studying the menace of bullying.  These studies that are just few in number have been truly helpful in uncovering the intricacies involved in bullying and unfair treatment towards others. The unveiling of these complexities has consequently disclosed the meagerness of the preparation of the bullying construct. It won’t be incorrect to state that this problem needs to be researched in a consistent manner.

Different Perspectives of Bullying

The bullying construct and the problems associated with it have been identified by a number of authors.  According to Arora (1996), Madsen (1996) and Bosworth et al. (1999), bullying has been defined differently in various surveys. However, regardless of its various definitions, it is possible that the people who answered the surveys had different concepts/ideas and this is the reason why their answers didn’t match up with the definitions that the survey included. For this reason, it is not astonishing that the survey data needs validity and verification. In the recent times, various researchers have necessitated to research on bullying considering it from a point of view that is social-ecological (Swearer & Doll, 2001; Swearer & Espelage, 2004). The reason behind this call is the conjectural perspective that has grown out of the contributions of Bronfenbrenner (1977, 1979) and Cairns & Cairns (1991).

The Social Relational Theory and The Theory of Status Relationships

Theories related to social-ecological perspectives place the individual in a context that is nested in his/her role in society. These social contexts consist of his near and dear ones including the family members, relatives, friends, acquaintances, school fellows, office colleagues, neighbors, the society and the general public. The theoretical work done in the contemporary times suggest that bullying can be understood really well by viewing it from this social-ecological perspective.

On the other hand, this perspective is really broad and because of this breadth, it is not possible for the social-ecological theory to figure out and get to the bottom of the inter-personal and related variables that act as contributors for bullying to exist. By knowing all there is to know, social ecological theory makes it easier for the researchers to have a bird’s eye view on the issue. However, this theory is unsuccessful in shedding light and focusing on the interactions that act as major contributors to the dynamics related to both bullies and victims of bullying. As a consequence, it is suggested that for understanding bullying and the aggression related to it that is mostly observed in teenagers; it is necessary to emphasize on the two additional theories related to social-ecological perspective. These two theories are known as the social relational theory and the theory of status relationships. The two mentioned theories begin by introducing relationship elements that intermingle with social contexts. In addition, these theories are also able to deal with bullying characteristics and associated aggression that are most obvious in the high school environment, that is to say intimacy, disagreement, supremacy, and position.

Social-Ecological Framework

The investigators of bullying issue have also proposed a framework related to social-ecological framework that describes the occurrence of bullying and related factors. It is exceedingly important for us to recognize and analyze the social ecology that helps in the establishment and maintenance of the behaviors related with bullying and victimization (Kerns & Prinz, 2002). This understanding and comprehension is necessary for the development and implementation of bullying prevention and intrusion programs that may prove effective in the future. It is an old concept that the individual is influenced and affected by the multiple environments. A lot of research has been done on this notion and people have also written a lot about it. It is not a new idea that family, society and culture play a very important role in molding the personality of an individual and there is a reciprocal interplay between a person and his/her environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).  According to the ecological-systems theory, each and every one of the individuals is part of an interconnected system by which individuals are located at the center. This is from this centre that the individual moves out so that he/she could become a part of all the other systems that eventually help him to grow and develop personally/professionally (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory

The interconnectedness of the said systems has been described that ultimately act together for having an impact on the behavior of individuals (Garbarino & DeLara, 2002). Thus, bullying and victimization are being considered as ecological observable facts that are recognized and complete unpredictably (Swearer & Doll, 2001). The Bronfenbrenner’s theory suggests that an infant is an indivisible component of a social network. This social network is consisted of four interrelated systems i.e. microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem.  A number of psychologists have been influenced by Bronfenbrenner’s theory as far as the individual analysis is concerned along with its various environmental systems that have a huge impact. In view of this fact, the ecological systems theory has turned out to be a really significant theory and has also given a basis to the works and contributions of other theorists.

Four Interrelated Systems

The Micro-system is the immediate environment that directly affects people. It consists of one’s family, friends, relatives, colleagues and society. Micro-system is composed of people with whom one has a direct social interaction. According to this theory, people are not simple receivers of the experiences when they socialize with the mentioned social agents. Instead, people are the force that contributes in the micro=system and its construction. The relationship between the micro-systems in an individual’s life makes up the meso-system.  The experiences one has with his family may affect his school life. For instance, neglecting on the part of parents may affect the relationship of a child with teachers at school. The exo-system can be defined as a system that does not allow an individual to play a constructive role in life experiences. However, the micro-systems of the life of such an individual are directly impacted by those non-constructive experiences. For example, if a child has a more close association with his father, he/she may have either a conflicting or a tight bond with his/her mother in case if the father goes abroad for a long period of time. The immediate culture of an individual makes up the involving his/her socioeconomic status, his/her ethnicity, neighborhood etc. For instance, belonging to a poor family may make a person hardworking.

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Comparative Analysis

Today, the Psychological Board Association finds it difficult to decide whether ABA Therapy is better than Social Awareness Communication or not. Several studies have revealed that the advocates of both therapies consider whether a child has been diagnosed with autism or the does the child seem to exhibit symptoms of autism? According to the DSM-5 field test, many children have been diagnosed with autism when they only have Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder. Some speech-language pathologists consider that it is better to have the children fully tested before diagnosis of autism.

Differences Between ASD and SCD

There are several differences between ASD and SCD (a red flag for some parents who might suspect that their child was misdiagnosed with ASD). Kids with autism have difficulties in social communication and exhibit repetitive or disruptive behaviors. Some repetitive or disruptive behaviors may include flapping, jumping, and rocking. On the other hand, children with SCD display a consistent behavior and use verbal and non-verbal communication cues across different texts. ASD and SCD have verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties thereby making the diagnosis difficult. However, specialists in both fields still maintain that treating a child for a communication disorder is far easier than treating a child with ABA.  According to them, if a child is given the opportunity to socialize, it will make a child speak and behave properly.

In ASD, the daily schedule, expectation, or chores will benefit the children in processing information visually. In contrast, SCD uses visual supports for a child’s daily schedule, expectations, and chore chart, etc. to allow the kids process information visually as well. Also, planning controlled play dates can also help a child talk faster than using ASD which only focuses on repeating words day in and day out as a reinforcement technique. It must be noted that reinforcing something consistently frustrates and bothers such children as they do not like eye contact, hugging, or touching. Sensitivity issues are challenging for both the children and the respective associations. SCD believes in making consistent interactions with kids and their peers (whether autistic or not) and endeavoring to bring the children out of isolation. ASD, on the other hand, believes in the sensory as a contributive factor in treating children with different spectrum of ASD. In contrast, ABA firmly believes in understanding the behavior of each child and does not rely solely on dialogue therapy. Along with SCD, there are several ABA methods that are used in helping the children to succeed in today’s world.

Bridging the Gap Between Therapists and Parents

Finally, both parties do agree on bridging the gap between therapists and parents to achieve the best results. As SCD is a new diagnosis, the researchers find it difficult to diagnose the two conditions separately.  However, they believe in their new modifications funded by private companies such as Autism Speaks.  The scientists used DSM-5 criteria for both ASD and SCD to reevaluate a large number of families previously assigned to an autism sub-type under DSM-IV.  Most importantly, treatment should address the inimitable needs of the individual as established through evaluation.  The therapies are focused on improving social communication by using speech and language therapy, ABA, Essential Retort Training, Early Start Denver Model, societal skills groups, and Intellectual Behavioral Therapy.

Conclusion

Although there is not a single concrete method to help a child to communicate, it is the bridging of a home, school, and therapies that will help the children later to lead a better life in future.

References

Kim, Y. S., Fombonne, E., Koh, Y., Kim, S., Cheon, K., & Leventhal, B. L. (2014). A Comparison of DSM-IV Pervasive Developmental Disorder and DSM-5 Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence in an Epidemiologic Sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,53(5), 500-508. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.021

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Introduction

James McKeen Cattell American Psychologist is one of the most renowned psychologists who belonged to United States of America and it was due to his consistent efforts that the status of psychology in the United States advanced towards the “use of objective experimental methods, mental testing, and application of psychology to the fields of education, business, industry, and advertising” (“James McKeen Cattell”, 2013). Cattell has been successful in producing 2 professional directories and has also originated 5 scientific periodicals.

Brief Biography

Cattell was born in Easton, Pennsylvania on May 20, 1860. He was born in an educated family as his father was the head of Lafayette College (Easton). Cattell’s family gave him full support to acquire high education and therefore encouraged him to go abroad for studying and working. In 1880, he graduated from the Lafayette College and went to Germany for studying. There, he met Rudolf Hermann Lotze and Wilhelm Wundt, the two famous psychologists, at the University of Göttingen and at the University of Leipzig respectively (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013). When he returned to the United States of America, he took admission in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore and spent two years there. Going back to Leipzig, Cattell started his career as the assistant of Wundt after which he started to carry out investigations intended for knowing about scientific neutrality/impartiality (“James McKeen Cattell”, 2013).

In 1886, Cattell was still at Leipzig and received his Ph.D. from there. Later, he went on with his research at Sir Francis Galton’s London laboratory (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013). One of his biggest achievements is that he was awarded the professorship in psychology in 1888 which was the first one that was ever presented to anyone at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. It was at the same place that he was able to establish a laboratory of his own and prepared a number of mental measurement tests for the students who were studying at college (“James McKeen Cattell”, 2013).

Cattell then joined Columbia University in 1891 and was made the university lecturer and administrative head of psychology department there. A good number of his life years were spent there during which he improved and advanced his research on mental testing (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013). He became the cofounder of the Psychological Review in 1894 and also got his hands on Science that was a weekly journal that Cattell edited from till 1944. He was also involved in the establishment of Popular Science Monthly in 1900. After fifteen years, the name was changed to Scientific Monthly. He was highly concerned regarding the scientific eminence and this interest directed him towards the origination, editing and publication of a professional directory known as American Men of Science. In 1917, Cattell openly criticized World War I draft and as a consequence, he had to suffer a dismissal from Columbia (“James McKeen Cattell”, 2013).

His professional life then continued a bit slowly whereby he involved himself in editing The American Naturalist and School and Society. He became the founder of the Psychological Corporation in 1921. The reason behind founding this corporation was simple as Cattell wanted to make research in applied psychology accessible to manufacturing and commercial sectors (“James McKeen Cattell”, 2013). On January 20, 1944, the great psychologist died in Lancaster, Pennsylvania (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013).

Contributions to Psychology

James McKeen Cattell American Psychologist is considered as the pioneer of psychology in the United States of America due to whose influence, this field of science started using objective methods of study and the application of psychological methods became practically viable in more or less every area of life.

Psychology has been strongly and everlastingly impacted by Cattell in a number of ways. To begin with, Cattell’s career started in an era during which philosophy had a strong influence on psychology and other sciences related with human behavior. The alliance with philosophy had not made it possible for psychology to thrive as a separate field and this point encouraged Cattell to do something regarding making psychology a unique subject for further research (Schultz & Schultz, 2012).

Thus, Cattell was successful in supporting the idea that it is completely possible for psychology and related sciences related to behavior, biology and society to continue thorough, purposeful, scientific research. His impulsion speeded up this progress and the world witnessed a rapid change in procedural practices in the mentioned fields of science. According to a lot of researchers and historians, it was due to the constant efforts of Cattell that the United States of America experienced a hastened development in the behavioral, social and biological sciences. He may be considered as the only person who rendered his services in an absolute honest manner and no one can reach the point he was able to reach (Bourgoin & Byers, 1998).

Cattell was also able to show the scientific approach and its inflexibility in his own work when he was doing research on reading and observation (sensitivity), psychophysics, and the differences in individuals and the reaction times of individuals to a variety of stimuli. His research findings can be examined today as well which conclude “that eyes jump during reading, that words in print are only perceived when the eyes are at a standstill, that many words can be learned and remembered more easily and accurately than most letters, and that words and phrases can be read in a small fraction of a second” (Bourgoin & Byers, 1998).

Cattell was also successful in advocating the notion that scientific findings must be made use of in practical life. His findings and related analysis concerning reading and reaction time transfigured and modernized a number of educational practices. As already mentioned, the Psychological Corporation founded by Cattell in 1921 turned out as one of the most eminent and authentic institution for tests’ development to be used in educational and industrial sectors of the United States of America (Bourgoin & Byers, 1998).

Another major contribution of James McKeen Cattell American Psychologist in the field of Psychology is that he made a lasting impression in the history of America by rendering his services to specialized organizations and the publication of journals. Cattell was among the founding members of the renowned American Psychological Association (APA) and a number of other societies established for the sake of scientific research and development (Schultz & Schultz, 2012). He also originated and published a number of scientific journals like Science, Scientific Monthly and the American Naturalist. He was also the founder and publisher of the first and succeeding versions of American Men of Science and Leaders in Education (Bourgoin & Byers, 1998).

Human Intelligence Theory

Cattell truly represented the functionalist character of American psychology though he wasn’t a functionalist himself. He had a strong impact on the movement in the direction of a realistic, test-oriented and matter-of-fact approach to the mental processes as a distinctive subject. Cattell possessed a real concern for the human abilities and this is the reason why he researched on simple mental processes including naming objects and drugs; effects on mind etc. Cattell strongly encouraged the notion that psychology can be proved as a distinctive science by first focusing on the area of intelligence (Schultz & Schultz, 2012). According to him, the mental power itself could be divided into standardized measurement units. Thus, Cattell set on to develop certain measurement tools for the measurement of intelligence and was able to construct various mental testing instruments and also introduced psychophysical tests that were fifty in number including dynamometer pressure, sensation areas, least noticeable difference in weight, bisection of a 50cm line etc (Freedheim, 2003).

If Catell was asked to present his views regarding gay marriage, he would definitely have opposed the idea as he highly regarded the importance of the institution of marriage. He was against the idea of being unmarried but he would have definitely rejected gay marriage as he gave great reverence to the relationship between a man and his wife. There has been evidence that he was against the idea of birth control and he never practiced it. It is , therefore, crystal clear that if he were here in the contemporary times, Cattell would have definitely rejected the idea of gay marriage.

Conclusion

To cut a long story short, James McKeen Cattell is, without a doubt, an exceedingly influential figure in the history of American psychology as a coordinator, manager and overseer of psychological discipline and application. James McKeen Cattell American Psychologist also proved himself to be the major vocal connection between psychological research and studies and the superior scientific society.

It is one of his greatest achievements that even after a century, the publications and journals he originated back then are still around and are used by the contemporary scientists and psychologists for reference (Schultz & Schultz, 2012).

References

Bourgoin, S. M., & Byers, P. K. (1998). James McKeen Cattell. Encyclopedia of World Biography (p. 111). Detroit: Gale. Print.

Freedheim, D. K. (2003). Handbook of Psychology (Volume 1). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Print.

Hergenhahn, B. R., & Henley, T. B. (2013).Introduction to the History of Psychology. Stamford: Wadsworth. Print.

James McKeen Cattell. (2013). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://mchoudini.montgomerycollege.edu:3259/EBchecked/topic/100070/James-McKeen-Cattell

Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2012). A History of Modern Psychology. Australia; Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Print.

 
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Intelligence – Nature/Nurture Debate

In psychological terms, intelligence can be defined as “the general mental ability involved in calculating, reasoning, perceiving relationships and analogies, learning quickly, storing and retrieving information, using language fluently, classifying, generalizing, and adjusting to new situations” (“intelligence,” 2013 Emotional Intelligence is, on the other hand, “the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and / or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to reflectively regulate emotions in ways that promote emotional and intellectual growth” (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997, p. 23).

In simple words, it is an individual’s ability and skill to recognize and assess his/her emotional responses when dealing with own self or others. If truth be told, the overall intelligence is based upon the emotional intelligence and IQ a person possesses. Emotional intelligence and IQ are two sides of the same coin. A positive and constructive baseline IQ is needed by everyone to live life and carry out tasks in a good manner. On the other hand, emotional intelligence is the characteristic that discriminates stupendous and exceptional people and organizations (Bourey & Miller 2001).

As far as nature/nurture debate is concerned, two views are considered as controversial. Some regard behavioral characteristics to be inherited from nature whereas some people consider behavior to be acquired by nurturing that environment offers. On the other hand, the advocates of environment regard learning as the basic phenomenon due to which a human being acquires behavioral characteristics. They assume human beings as tabula rasa i.e. a blank slate which is filled up with experiences and learning in the course of time (Camille, 2005). In this connection, normal intelligence is considered to be the key of acquiring success and triumph in life. The awareness and understanding of one’s emotions is not connected with intellectual intelligence. (Antonakis, Ashkanasy & Dasborough 2009).

Emotional intelligence is learnt and it helps people to relate and socialize with other fellow beings and reaching their milestones. Emotional intelligence is believed to be important as it helps oneself to live life pleasurably and cheerfully. Emotional intelligence helps an individual to be conscious of the fact that how his actions and emotions affect those who are related to him. If a person has a deep understanding of his emotional intelligence, he is most likely to be the one who value and cherish the feelings and emotions of people around him. Such a person is able to understand the needs and wants of others. He would also be capable enough to identify with others on a number of levels.

Pioneers of Intelligence Testing

Emotional Intelligence (EI) and behaviors are outstandingly influenced by sexual characteristics, age, society, and socio-economic status.  Maturation of the brain is another important feature that is considered while assessing emotional intelligence of an individual (Nelson, Low & Ellis 2007). There has been an escalating admiration of the interrelatedness of emotion, impulse, and conduct in the last few years. This connection of emotions helps an individual in normal development and social functioning (Eiseberg, Fabes & Losoya 1997).

In the earlier times, The intelligence-related investigations are considered the g-factor to be the general factor that could define and measure intelligence. However, such a simple method was rejected by some psychologists to be authentic enough to determine intelligence. According to Raymond Cattell, there are two major parts into which intelligence can be divided i.e. fluid ability and crystallized ability. Whereas fluid ability was regarded as an instinctive, fundamental interpretation skill, crystallized intelligence was considered by him as the necessary information and skills acquired by a person through his/her experience in the immediate surroundings. Other psychologists have further divided intelligence into subcategories. On the other hand, intelligence was divided into 7 components by Howard Gardner. He divided intelligence into “musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal” (“intelligence,” 2013) components.

A system was devised by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in order to test intelligence, Scoring was based on homogeneous, typical intellectual levels for a range of people belonging to different age groups (“intelligence,” 2013). Benit defined intelligence as the capacity of an individual to find a purpose and maintain it, strategize to achieve that purpose and make necessary changes after the evaluation of that strategy. In simple words, he inter-related intelligence with problem-solving. Lewis Terman then worked on the expansion of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale his revisions were given the name of the Revised Stanford-Binet Intelligence Tests. Afterwards, David Wechsler designed an extremely significant tests’ series that proved really successful in the psychological field. He gave the test the name of Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale/the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. These tests are used as a standard tool in the contemporary testing of intelligence. It won’t be wrong to state here that the contributions of Binet and Terman made it easier for their successors to classify intelligence in terms of a uniform evaluation. It is important to mention that a good number of individuals of different age groups took the tests to ensure this standardization (“intelligence,” 2013).

Controversies Involved In Intelligence Testing

The 11+ or Eleven Plus is an exam taken by the students who are in the final year of their primary school. In actual fact, a majority of the children are just ten years old while taking this test. This is the reason why 11 Plus means that children who are over the age of ten are preferred during selection for the tests. It was in 1944 that the Butler Education Act introduced this test. The use of the test was widespread all over the nation till 1976. The test was designed to check the IQ of the children. Those who passed the test successfully were given admissions in grammar schools. On the other hand, children who were not successful in passing it were to attend a Secondary Modern school or the Butler Education Act supervised technical schools. The Eleven Plus Exam faced a lot of controversy as its critics claimed it to be an exam meant for the rich as grammar schools could not be afforded by the parents whose incomes were low. Another issue was related to gender. Although girls were better scorers in the test than boys, they were not given equal number of seats in the grammar schools which was entirely discriminating and unfair. Status of the schools was questioned due to the Eleven Plus Exams as other schools were graded as less well-organized than grammar schools. Eleven Plus exams were also criticized as they affected the self-esteem of the children who failed this exam (McNeill, Blundell & Griffiths, 2003).

The role of intelligence-related genetic factors is best proved by the comparison of identical and fraternal twins. The underlying principle in twin studies is that both the stated twin groups usually develop and grow under environmental situations that are same. This is the reason why it is believed that greater genetic regularity makes their intelligence levels more similar.  This indication makes it clear that IQ is an inherent characteristic. Many support this idea presenting the fact that identical twins share the same gender and are raised in a similar way. However, the advocates of the mentioned evidence believe that identical twins still show same intelligence levels even if they are reared apart from each other in different environmental conditions (Weiten, 2010).

Eugenics Movement – Development and Role of Leaders in its Establishment

Eugenics can be defined as the “study of human genetics and of methods to improve the inherited characteristics, physical and mental, of the human race” (“eugenics,” 2013). Euthenics, on the other hand, is the name given to the endeavors that are done for the improvement of human race by making accommodation and other environmental conditions better. The man who is regarded as the founder of eugenics in the modern world is Sir Francis Galton. He made great contributions in the field and emphasized on the role of socially-controlled factors that have the capacities to make the future generations and their living qualities better or worse. The Eugenics Movement is directed towards discouraging spread among those who are in poor condition and encouraging propagation among those who live in healthiness, improved environmental conditions and possess morality. However, a program of such caliber consists of a number of complexities as the most desirable traits can never be defined and acknowledged unanimously (“eugenics,” 2013).

The world witnessed severely intimidating application and implementation of eugenic principles. The governments involved themselves in implying such principles that ranged from miscegenation (inter-marriage between individuals belonging to different races) laws and obligatory sterilization of the abnormal individuals in a number of countries including United States of America to the Nazi Germany Holocaust (“eugenics,” 2013). As mentioned, Galton introduced eugenics and presented the theory that improvements may be brought in the human race if the fittest members of the society are encouraged to reproduce more. This idea gained fame throughout the world and the first part of the twentieth century saw the eugenics movement emerging at its fullest. Scientists began to coincide animal breeding with human genetics to promote the Eugenics Movement. In this regard, it is extremely important to mention the name of Charles Davenport who became the first American scientists to get hold of the genetics theory presented by Mendel. He was successful in disclosing significant information concerning albinism and similar inheritance of conditions. The eugenics movement brought troubles in the American society as insane people were started to be considered as worthless beings that were not able to produce healthy and intelligent offspring. This horrible movement also turned out to be the starting point of the racial prejudice that consequently resulted in the Immigration Act o;f 1924 passage. This Act restricted the Europeans in a great number from entering into the United States of America. Not only this, each and every one of the Asian immigrants was rejected to be given entrance in the American land. However, this continued only until 1960s (Engs, 2005). There are still a number of people who are in favor of this terrible movement and consider it wrong to give birth to a child knowing that he/she may have a genetic disorder or some other kind of disability or impairment. China is known to be one of the major places where government supported the regulated eugenics till 1990s.

State Boys Rebellion – Main Characters (Victims and Their Treatment)

“The State Boys Rebellion” is an entirely overwhelming work by Michael D’Antonio that highlights the Eugenic Movement. This story is regarding the unfortunate people who were tested to measure their intelligence defects, in the state run home known as Walter E. Fernald School for the Feebleminded in Waltham, Massachusetts. Freddie Boyce is the main character in the story that was shipped to the mentioned school to be tested. The School was involved in treating the normal boys as abnormal and treated those poor, illiterate and abused children in the satanic manners by assaulting them sexually and varying out forced lobotomies, shock therapies and sterilizing processes. Despite the fact that children emphasized on themselves being normal, they were subjected to the most ill treatments one can think of. However, the story ends in a good way when the abused children are shown to take over a ward and acquiring independence eventually.

State Boys Rebellion – Conclusion

This story weaves together the traumatic scenario of a State Boys Group and Eugenics history along with the characteristic known as human intelligence and the concerned policies that the world witnesses in the twentieth century. After going through the whole story, it can be easily concluded that Eugenics Movement was a really deep and dark secret of the history of the United States of America. It is a biting reality that hundreds and thousands of innocents and normal/abnormal American children were kept in warehouses under the supervision of the state governments and sadly, nothing was done by the federal government to stop this victimization of the innocent souls (America’s Deep, Dark Secret,” 2007).

Misapplication of Science

The Fernald School experience of the STATE BOYS was indeed a total misapplication of science as the institution was a product of the Eugenics Movement and it misused science by functioning to make the fittest American population happy by “alleviating the burden [of the] feebleminded and their many illnesses” (Rosen, 2005). Though Eugenics is a scientific field yet it is not to be applied on human beings to stop them from reproducing. This is the reason why I strongly believe that the said school was totally unjustified to bruise the bodies and souls of the innocent children. It is a thing to be thankful for that the dark era of Eugenics Movement came to a conclusion.

References

America’s Deep, Dark Secret. (2007, December 5). CBSNews. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-614728.html

Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2009). Does Leadership Need Emotional Intelligence?.The Leadership Quarterly, 20(2), 247-261. Print.

Camille, A. (2005, March). I Can See Clearly Now: How We Come into the World Is Not How We Must Remain. an Encounter with Jesus Can Be Life-Changing for the Physically and Spiritually Blind. U.S. Catholic, 70, 3. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1G1-129170131/i-can-see-clearly-now-how-we-come-into-the-world

Engs, R. C. (2005). The Eugenics Movement: An Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Print.

eugenics. (2013). Questia. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-eugenics/eugenics

intelligence. (2013). Questia. Retrieved November 17, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-intellig/intelligence

McNeill, P., Blundell, J., & Griffiths, J. (2003). Sociology AS: The Complete Companion AQA. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Print.

Rosen, C. (2005). Preaching Eugenics : Religious Leaders and the American Eugenics Movement. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Print.

Salovey, P., & Sluyter, D. J. (1997).Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational Implications. New York: Basic Books. Print.

Susann, D., & Pastorino, E. (2011). What Is Psychology?. Belmont: Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Print.

Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations:. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Print.

 
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Introduction

The term ‘identity’ is used for a variety of things and for this reason different people mean different things when they refer to identity. If we talk about Human Identity, its meaning is rather complicated and infinite. If truth be told, identity is the origin of an indivisible section of an individual’s awareness and perception to a certain extent. However, for the most part, identity is a congregation of one’s attitude, conduct, moral values and viewpoints that he/she collects and learns during the course of his/her life. In simple words, an individual’s identity is unique and separates him/her from others (Lawler 1). It is said that an individual’s place in society is dependent on his/her individual identity. Due to the social variables (gender, religion, ethnicity, political views etc) that form and affect one’s personality and identity, the worldviews of one are molded and shaped. This is the reason why it is excessively important to study about one’s identity as it may have a variety of major influences on the life of an individual. It is because of these identities and the subsequent worldviews that people are able to realize, understand and create life’s realities.

Identity Influenced by Social Variables

As far as my own individual identity is concerned, it is influenced by a number of social variables. As the follower of Catholicism and victim of racial categorization due to my Mexican ethnicity in a divided American society, my identity and worldviews have been shaped up accordingly.

Religion

In my case, religion is the most important social variable that has affected my overall personal traits and individual identity. I am a devoted Catholic today as I have been raised in an environment where my parents emphasized on practicing religious teachings and moralities. This factor has mainly formed my identity as a faithful, loving and compassionate believer. Due to the opportunities and experiences, that my parents offered me, I have gained knowledge about God, goodness and positivity in life and I consider myself a lucky person to be able to express positive characteristics in my daily life. I identify with a lot of people who believe in God’s oneness and supremeness. I try my best to abide by the teachings of Catholicism and get hold of opportunities to receive reparations.

Racism

My individual identity is also affected and shaped up by the racial/ethnic categorization that I experience in the American society on a daily basis. The United States of America is renowned for treating Mexicans in a negative light and considering them as an inferior minority group (Mintz 4). I and my Family are still struggling to fit in into the American society in a successful manner. My life is a different one as compared to other ‘whites’ as my skin color, facial features, accent and other physical aspects define my Mexican ethnicity. Although I am not treated as Blacks, the stereotypic lens that is so associated with the whites, view me as an alien in the land of whites.

Discrimination

This social variable of racial/ethnic classification has shaped up my beliefs and worldviews to a great extent. Thus, because of my group membership, I encounter discrimination now and then and this differential treatment does make me upset a lot of times. I find myself struggle to not be treated as a 2nd class citizen but it becomes rather painful sometimes. Despite all this, I continue to be strongminded and try to play my role in the society as a positive American who hates discrimination.

I have adopted this attitude by not considering myself as a disadvantaged individual in a different society where discrimination is prevalent on the basis on one’s ethnicity, race and skin color. My self-discipline, composure and moral values that I have inherited have helped me tremendously to face people’s negative comments and mistreatment. There are a lot of times when I have stood out in my academic disciplines. This has boosted my confidence a lot and has motivated me to ignore what others say and do to subjugate me. Thus, such behaviors have carved my worldviews but in a positive way. I believe that the positivity in my nature is due to my religious devotion and my habit of finding good in everything. Although I encounter a lot of limitations and restrictions in the society due to my racial and ethnic characteristics, I try to take no notice of such negativities and look forward to do what I want to do and achieve in my life.

Cultural Values

As I have always lived in America, the cultural values of the society have affected me since the beginning so I do not find it difficult to comply with the American culture. Although culture is related with race and ethnicity, it is not a case in my situation as I have always lived like an “American”. My eating habits, language, way of dressing also reflects America.

Social Status

As far as my social status is concerned, I belong to a middle class family. The society in the United States of America does believe in class system. I am proud of my middle class identity as most Americans are as I know I can move out of it if I struggle hard. This normal classification has given me the realization that I am living a life that is better than a majority of people in the whole wide world. I have never been affected by the idea that I do not come from a wealthy family or do not have rich parents. In fact, I am kind of satisfied with what I have and this makes me thankful for a lot of things that others don’t have.

I think myself as a blessed citizen as I enjoy contemporary comforts such as educational accessibility, technological stuff and gadgets, Internet availability, comfortable means of transportation, better clothes etc. I am willing to do much more in life by becoming a self-made person. I am motivated by the fact that I must work hard in order to give my parents what they were not able to give to me.

Stereotype Thinking

As a Mexican-American male, I find myself frequently a victim of prejudicial behaviors and discrimination. It is not an untold secret that Mexican men who live in the United States of America experience such situations almost ninety percent of the time (Garcia 104). As I belong to a Mexican family, I am expected to display my sexual competence and ability in the society to help me move along with confidence. This male dominance is referred to as Machismo and is a form of male dominance of an extreme level (Garcia 103). A majority of the Mexicans believe that machismo has helped Mexican-Americans to survive in the American society and to fight against the unfair behaviors of the local people. My brought up in a Mexican family has shaped out my mind in a way that I strongly believe in the solidarity of the family and consider males to be on a superior side as compared to women. I believe that women are the homemakers whereas males are the leaders of the family who decide for it.

Conclusion

Thus, living in America being a Mexican-American is not easy but the social variables I have discussed and their recognition and understanding has helped me to develop my sociological imagination. I think it is extremely necessary for everyone to understand the society and be aware about the world in order “to question cultural misconceptions and media stereotypes about people who live in countries with cultures very different from our own” (Langley 5).

References

Garcia, A. M. The Mexican Americans. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Print.

Langley, P. Discovering Sociology. UK: Pearson, 1988. Print.

Lawler, S. Identity: Sociological Perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2008. Print.

Mintz, S. Mexican American Voices: A Documentary Reader. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Print.

 
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Introduction

Aggression can be described as that particular behavioral form that is characterized by attack (verbal or physical). It has a number of characteristics that may come into view as suitable and defensive (in some cases, even positive and helpful) particularly when there is vigorous self-assertiveness. On the other hand, aggression may also appear as improper, wrong and disparaging. Aggression is sometimes intended for others i.e. it is directed outwards. At other times, it may be directed against one’s own self and may lead to self-destructive or desperate events. It is often caused by emotional stimulation/provocation/awakening or due to frustration. People also tend to behave aggressively when they want to make a reward safe and protected (“aggression”).

According to the Austrian ethologist, Konrad Lorenz and his Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression, aggression is an inborn fighting instinct that is prominent in both animal and human behaviors. He put forwarded the argument that “the suppression of aggressive instincts, common among human societies, allows these instincts the chance to build up, occasionally to the point where they are released during instances of explosive violence” (“aggression”).

Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression

In his book, On Aggression, Lorenz has described aggression as an inherent fighting characteristic in animals and human being which is often intended to harm the members of identical species. According to Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression, this aggressive instinct helps both the individual and the species to survive and continue their existence. In case of animals, aggressive behavior helps them (the stronger males in particular) to mate and occupy territories. Thus, aggression is the essential characteristic that allows animals to use their status, terrain, or developed patterns of instinctual behavior for avoiding any tangible fighting and life losses. Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression concludes that it is the human nature only that makes them to kill each other on purpose and he has attributed this fact to the increase and expansion of artificial weapons that has outpaced the human evolution of exterminating hang-ups (“Konrad Lorenz”).

The psychological, behavioral and other similar social sciences have given another name to aggression i.e. combativeness and it is referred as the behavioral instinct in members of the same species that is directed towards causing pain or harm to others. Whereas animals are known to have an extremely aggressive nature, human beings also exhibit various forms of aggression in certain situations and these forms can vary from verbal, emotional or physical. It is extremely important to mention here that the characteristic of assertiveness is not related with aggression. As already mentioned, aggression is categorized into two types that include antagonistic, sentimental, or corrective aggression and helpful, goal-oriented or voracious aggression.

Comparison of Human and Animal Aggression

According to the empirical research, there is a psychological and physiological contradiction between the two stated aggression forms. Those who demonstrate “emotional or affective” aggression are thought of as being spontaneous, explicit and wild people with lower IQ levels. On the other hand, people demonstrating “predatory or voracious” aggression are considered as individual with goals, plans and having full control on themselves. As far as business atmosphere is concerned, it is very easy for one to find people with the mentioned aggressive personality types. It is also important to note here that violence must not be confused with aggression as there is a distinct difference among them. Aggression is, if truth be told, the starting point of violent behavior. Time and again, corrective violence and self-protective violence are not categorized as aggression due to the fact that both are initiated as responsive actions.

As far as animals are concerned, aggression helps them to reproduce and stay alive. Most of the times, aggression is used by animals for acquiring and protecting their territories and other obtained resources that may include water and food. They also make use of aggression to get most out of mating opportunities. The most obvious example of aggression can be observed when a predator and its prey interact. An animal becomes aggressive when it defends itself against a killer animal. This aggressive instinct helps it to continue living and making sure that the offspring are protected as well. For the reason that death ultimately occurs after the show of aggression against a much larger rival or grouping of rivals, there is a good sense in animals that help them to know whether they are outnumbered or not. Another situation when aggression reaches its peak in animals is when they try to have sex with the female partner. Thus, animals make use of aggression during sexual intercourse and this innate characteristic helps them to have offspring (Archer, 115).

On the other hand, the aggression in human beings is very different when compared with the non-human animals; though they have similarities too. The complexity of human aggression differs because of the presence of cultural values, morality and societal conditions. When business environment is considered, aggression again takes a lot of forms. However, this feature in a human being helps him/her to achieve success as it is derived by strong passion for achieving a goal or goals. The competition cannot be won without having any aggression. Successful endeavors are always fuelled by aggression that is both collected and controlled. This is because uncontrolled and uncollected aggression disturbs the balance and results in negative consequences for both the individual and the others around him/her in one or other ways.

Aggression in Business Environment

Aggression is easily channeled out when the economy is financially complicated. In such a case, aggression is used as a substantially constructive tool for the betterment and success of the economic conditions of the business/country. The best thing about this outlet for aggression is that it does not cause any danger to human life and does not end in life loss of any party involved.   The aggressive tendencies of human beings vary according to their social environment. Similarly, human beings tend to show different kinds of aggressive behaviors in a business environment. As concluded by Lorenz, a majority of animals have evolved in such a manner that they hold back from attacking or causing harm to the members of their own species. This is because they develop a sense of belonging and thus restrain from destroying their own species unnecessarily. This type of evolved inhibition has an influential impact but is largely dependent on the surroundings. On the other hand, if proper conditions are not present in the environment, such inhibitions do not work and fail to function in a normal manner. Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression gives the examples of doves to make this phenomenon understandable. According to him, “even though doves are to us the symbol of peace, if one cages two of them close together, putting them in an artificial environment where they cannot separate from each other, the stronger of the two will torture the other to death, without the arousal of any inhibition” (Shiller 226).

As far as an individual’s career is concerned, aggression that is directed outwards may prove to be the best friend of him/her. It doesn’t matter whether the aggression is passive or direct. The thing that is important in a business environment is that the recipient is able to receive the relayed message. When there is a negotiation process, this phenomenon is excessively beneficial. However, it is extremely significant for the human beings to make use of aggression in a calm and controlled manner and not to get so emotional to make the situation negative and complicated. In other words, emotions must not be allowed to take the driving seat in the resolution of any conflict/difficult situation, especially when it is a situation at ones’ workplace (Linsley 3).

Human beings have various ways to direct aggression towards their rivals. They can either shy their enemies away or have them get even in panic. Aggression either makes a person frightened or makes him/her excessively hostile to the point where he/she blunders and makes mistakes. When people show aggression towards another people in business dealings, the aggression makes it easy for them to observe how their opponents react in a pressurizing situation. This insight makes it helpful for people to use the obtained knowledge to their advantage. Opponents with no backbone turn out too scary to compete when the person showing aggression presses harder. When opponents have hotheads, they tend to make poor decision as a reaction to more pressure. On the other head, if the opponents have a cool attitude and don’t allow pressure to boil them up, the aggressive individual still is benefitted by knowing about their intentions and becomes more careful (Linsley 3).

Gender is another factor that makes a person aggressive. According to the studies, men are more aggressive than women in workplace. They are involved in workplace bullying, emotional abuse, incivility, deviance and horizontal violence (Jacobson 30). This is similar to what can be found in a non-human environment. As already mentioned, male animals use their aggressive behavior to subjugate the females in order to take advantage of the situation.

It is also important to note that there are a number of factors that increases the chances of potential aggressive behavior in a business environment. There are particular jobs in this contemporary world of ours that have specific characteristics due to which aggression levels at workplace elevate. Such jobs consist of “physical and/or emotional care of others, interacting with the public, working at night, working alone, handling money, serving or selling alcohol, disciplining others, going into clients’ homes, and handling weapons” (Jacobson 37) etc.

Conclusion

It is really saddening that character disturbance has turned out to be a prevailing characteristic in both employers and employees in the current business environments. There are a good number of people who don’t have the sense to feel any guilt or shame and keep on making the lives of their colleagues a mess by showing unnecessary aggression. It is not an untold secret that the contemporary business environments and the high competition today have made workplace rather insecure. This has increased the probability of encountering people with toxic aggressive natures that becomes very problematic for people who work with them.

To cut a long story short, Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression was correct, in his perception that the social environments make animals and human being different. However, it is also correct that some people also become animal-like while dealing with others just to get their ways. It is extremely necessary for people to understand the value of other people’s emotions and dignity. In short, aggression is something that is not always necessary. However, it is necessary when it is used to gain a positive result from something without causing any actual physical/emotional damage to others.

References

“aggression.” Questia. N.p., 2013. Web. 9 Nov. 2013. <http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-aggressi/aggression>.

Archer, J. The Behavioural Biology of Aggression. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Print.

Jacobson, V. L. Workplace Aggression: Employee Attitudes, Perceptions, and Behaviors in Aggressive Work Climates. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest, 2007. Print.

“Konrad Lorenz.” World of Scientific Discovery. Gale, 2006. Science in Context. Web. 9 Nov. 2013. <http://mchoudini.montgomerycollege.edu:3186/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?failOverType=&query=&prodId=SCIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&u=rock77357&currPage=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&source=&search_within_results=&p=SCIC&action=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE%7CK1648000434>.

Linsley, P. Violence and Aggression in the Workplace: A Practical Guide for All Healthcare Staff. Oxford, Seattle: Radcliffe Publishing, 2006. Print.

Shiller, R. J. Finance and the Good Society. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2012. Print.

 
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Psychological Intelligence

An individual is someone who has a different personality of his/her own that differentiates him from a group of people. This individual has a distinctive intelligence level, achievement abilities and aptitude. As far as Psychological Intelligence and Individual Differences is concerned, it can be defined as the “ability to reason about personality and personality-relevant information and to use that information to guide one’s actions and more generally, one’s life” (as qtd. in Mayer, Panter & Caruso, 2012, p. 124). In other words, psychological intelligence is a basic psychological capability in an individual that allows him/her to give explanation, plan and prepare and get to the bottom of troubles. Intelligence is something that is not acquired by reading books or being academically bright. In the similar fashion, achievement is the way a task is performed in a successful manner (Travers. 1970, p. 447). However, aptitude is a natural tendency to carry out a task.

Scientists Research, Individual Differences

In times, scientists researched and studied on the individual differences and were able to make the conclusion that it is a different subject when compared with experimental psychology. At the same time as experimental psychology puts emphasis on the processes that find out performance of individuals in certain tentative conditions, the field of individual differences is related with the stable distinguishing psychological traits among people, principally those that simplify across miscellaneous circumstances (Williams, Myerson & Hale, 2008, p. 219). The differences in the behavioral patterns in human beings in which psychologists take interest are personality traits and cognitive abilities. In this regard, a number of tests have been created in order to evaluate Psychological Intelligence and Individual Differences, abilities and personalities of the people. Such tests include vocabulary tests, short-term memory duration tests, analogical analysis and interpretation, pictures’ scanning etc. (Williams, Myerson & Hale, 2008, p. 219).

Thus, numerous tests developed in the past have been successful in concluding that intelligence is not the only original ability that helps to differentiate people but there is a mixed set comprising of cognitive skills by which variations could be made among people. It is important to note here that the up-to-date findings reveal that an approach towards analyzing individual behavior will be of great value to understand intelligence-related individual differences (Williams, Myerson & Hale, 2008, p. 219).

Psychological Testing and Advancement

In the same connection, scientists marked out the facts, data and skills that are important for using tests to measure intelligence and abilities of individuals. Therefore, guidelines were developed for test user qualifications by a number of international professional organizations. The latest version of the ethical principles introduced by APA (American Psychological Association) includes various standards that are associated with proper test use that include “specific principles related to the boundaries of competence for psychologists and the appropriate application and use of psychological assessment techniques” (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p.11).

Even though professionals related to different disciplines have developed and used tests, major contributions have also been rendered by several graduates who have acquired their doctorates in the field of psychology (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p.16). This is because psychology is broadly recognized as the historical root for testing individual differences as it has made the research evidence available to the psychologists and has also provided professional training for the advancement of proficient psychosomatic analysis and evaluation (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000).

Technological Transformation

The process to test psychological condition of individuals particularly the intelligence has went through considerable technological transformations over the last several decades. At the outset, the usage of computers for the administration of tests and for scoring and giving clarifications at the end of the tests has turned out to be a major part of testing on a daily basis (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69). Furthermore, the rising innovative technologies including the Internet have been able in successfully expanding the related applications from corner to corner covering great distances. It can be said that the new technologies have significantly impacted the relationship between the users, takers, and the consumer of the tests (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000).

Projective Tests

As far as projective tests are concerned, these are the types of personality tests in which individuals are asked to respond to indistinct/confusing scenes, letters or pictures (Huss, 2009, p.31). Projective tests were introduced by the psychoanalytic school of thought that believes in the notion that every human being has feelings/urges that are unconscious. Thus, projective tests emerged on the scene with the intention of uncovering such unconscious thoughts that are not comprehended by the conscious attentiveness (Huss, 2009, p. 31). Projective tests are intended to let the assessor observe the process of thinking and behavioral traits of the individual taking the test (Huss, 2009, p. 31). Thus, the projective tests are psychological tests that allow an examiner to test the personality traits of an individual as well as his/her cataleptic urges and general mental health (Huss, 2009, p. 31). Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test are the two very renowned projective tests (Huss, 2009, p.31). The scoring of projective tests can be interpreted in three ways i.e. norm, mean or standard deviation. Norms refers to a scores list and consequent/matching percentile ranks, ideal standard scores or other altered scores of an examinee grouping that were examined to derive a standardized test (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013, p. 53). Mean is simply defined as the average scoring way that calculates result by summing up all of the scores collectively and then the answer is divided by the number of scores taken (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013, p. 53). Last but not the least; standard deviation is an important statistical measure that is employed to measure how much the individual interpretations are spread across the mean scores (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013, p. 53).

The Consequences of new Technologies

Coming back to the significance of psychological testing and advancement in the field in the past few decades, it is crystal clear that there are more positive changes as compared to the negative ones (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69). The consequences of new technologies comprise of more accessibility, better precision and increased tests availability. The ongoing improvements in the advancement and progression of inferred algorithms and systems that have been supervised by the best professionals have led to retreating contemporaneous misunderstanding of the testing process by the human beings (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69). The modern technology in the measurement of Psychological Intelligence and Individual Differences in the mentioned domains has simplified a number of aspects of the process of analysis and evaluation of human mentality. However, new technological applications in the process of testing human intelligence and ability have also gave birth to intricate testing services despite the fact that there has been a lot of improvement (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69). Therefore, it has become an essential thing to supply the concerned professional with more knowledge and skills to help them handle the increased scientific complexity (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69). As luck would have it, such availability of better hi-tech complexity may direct the concerned people to improved technical education and training in the basics of employment of psychological tests (“Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications”, 2000, p. 69).

Conclusion

To cut a long story short, the scientists have been studying individual differences for many years and believe in the significance of psychological testing (Fagan & Wise, 1995). This is because differentiating the differences among people allows health care providers to understand, comprehend and solve their patients’ problems. Individual differences’ testing helps them in the development of an individualized intervention strategy that may comprise of medication use, behavior modification or psychotherapeutic classes and a number of other plans for the identification and resolution of problems in a fruitful and constructive manner (Fagan & Wise, 1995).

References

Fagan, T., & Wise, P. S. (1995). School psychology: Past, present and future. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Huss, M. T. (2009). Forensic psychology : research, practice, and applications. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publications.

Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2013).Psychological testing : principles, applications, & issues. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Mayer, J. D., Panter, A. T., & Caruso, D. R. (2012). Does Personal Intelligence Exist? Evidence From a New Ability-Based Measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94(2), 124-140.

Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualifications . (n.d.). APA. Retrieved August 29, 2013, from  http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/qualifications.pdf

Travers, J. F. (1970). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Scranton, PA: International Text            Book Company.

Williams, B., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2008). INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES,      INTELLIGENCE, AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS.Journal of the Experimental Analysis      of behavior, 90(2), 219-231.

 
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Introduction

In psychology, personality can be described as “the patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion unique to an individual, and the ways they interact to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to other people and situations” (“personality,” 2013). Psychologists may make use of idiographic or nomothetic techniques in order to study personality of an individual.  Many characteristics of human behavior can be examined while studying one’s personality. To put in simple words, personality theories are utilized for organizing what is known, stimulating new research, and specifying a view of personality in a formal way (Kasschau, 1985).  Freud Psychoanalytic theory, person-centered theory and existential theory are three such theories which have been developed in the precedent century and cover a lot of information regarding the pathology, health/wellness, treatment and the weight or significance of early life.

Freud Psychoanalytic Theory Explained

The Psychoanalytic Theory was put forwarded by Sigmund Freud in which he considered the human personality as a whole by dividing it into 3 functional parts namely id, ego, and superego. Freud regarded the id as the unfathomable stage of the unconscious, subjugated by the gratification principle. He viewed it as having an object to gratify the instinctual drives. He saw the superego to have been originated in an infant through identification with parents. The supergo, according to him, has a purpose of functioning as an inner repressor of the urges of the id in response to social pressures. In contrast, ego was seen by him as a part of the id tailored by getting in touch with the outside world.

Despite the fact that personality development elaborated in Freud’s theory covers the early life of human beings, Freud did not work with children. Instead, he spent time with mature people to practice psychoanalysis. By recollecting their childhood memories, Freud propounded the theory of psychoanalysis. However, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is widely acknowledged as the most influential one among all the personality theories till date.

In his theory, Freud made the assumption that “children were active creatures who passed through a series of psychosexual development phases, in which they were confronted with certain inner conflicts, desires and fantasies; the manner in which they overcame these was critical for whether they became mature adults capable of work and love, or whether they remained fixated at an earlier stage of development” (Diem-Wille, 2011). Freud associated development of personality with the development in early life and relationship of an individual with his/her parents and this thesis turned out to be a revolutionary one with an extensive influence.

Client-Centered Theory

Client-centered theory which is an exceptional psycho-therapeutic approach is also known as person-centered approach and was promulgated by Carl Rogers. Change is real and no one can deny it. People change with time. This person-centered theory has its main focus on “the person as a living process: moment-by-moment living, learning, growth, creativity, future orientation, interaction, the self-in-context, agency, the multiplicity of personal reality, communication, self–self relationships, experiencing and feeling, and the self-as-process” (Gurman & Messer, 2003).

Existential Theory

According to Existential theory, human beings’ primary tasks in life are completed through decision-making. It depicts that the exceptional self-determination powers possessed by the human beings help them to decide about something within the limits of biological conditions, society and psychology. Thus, existential theory is also considered as a humanistic theory as “it attributes to people an awesome freedom and responsibility for self-determination while recognizing the pain entailed in consciously relinquishing security for growth” (Kitano & LeVine, 1987). The existential theory demonstrates that people tend to find philosophical meaning of life when they are challenged with anxiety by choosing to feel and take action realistically and sensibly. Every human being has the responsibility of sensing the true meaning of his/her life and this meaning is shaped and derived by the experiences since early life.

Comparison and Contrast

On the whole, Freuds’ Psychoanalytic theory is deterministic in nature. On the other hand, both Person-Centered theory and Existential Theory are embedded in humanistic and existential ideas. Freud corresponded that the behavior of a person is mainly a reflection of what he/she experienced in his/her early life, particularly in the first 6 years of life. In simple words, deterministic view supported by Freud depicts that the present behaviors of people are unconsciously affected by their past experiences.

In contrast, Person-Centered theory and Existential theory are naturally humanistic in their approach and have a number of traits that are identical.  The humanistic and the deterministic views are different In nature for the reason that humanism conceptualizes people as independent individuals who have the ability to make cognizant decisions that help them in developing their personalities in a positive manner. On the other hand, the philosophy behind determinism highlights the assumption that the individual’s behavior is driven by a spring of unconscious inspiration. On the other hand, person-centered theory and existential theory do not attribute with a particular techniques’ set. However, both these theories give attention to active listening, evidence, and amplification of ideas.

It is also important to mention here that even though person-centered theory and existential theory have a lot of similarities; they also are dissimilar in a number of ways. Existential theory motivates people to be aware of the true meaning of their lives and contemplate over their existence to become acquainted with the numerous options that are present to make their existence consequential, significant and focused. Its belief is rooted in the fact that personal transformation of people is driven by seeking the true meaning of their existence. Existential theory demonstrates that an individual starts to feel psychologically challenged or disturbed when he/she is not honest with him/herself. On the other hand, Person-centered Theory believes in the notion that people are driven to their natural self when faced with defensiveness, inadequacy, and dissimilar situations. According to person-centered theory, people can direct themselves really well without even the assistance of anyone. They have the ability to solve their problems by making changes that they consider necessary. Existential theory, on the other hand, “uses a positive approach that applauds human capacities while simultaneously maintaining a genuine perception of the limitations of the human being, human spirit, and human mind” (Kitano & LeVine, 1987).

Conclusion

To cut a long story short, the personality was seen by Freud as a set of three minds i.e. conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The conscious mind is aware of the present happenings whereas the unconscious mind deals with the memories, experiences and events that are forgotten or buried deep down. The preconscious mind deals with the unconscious and the conscious mind and the information stored in them. Rogers was of the belief that a majority of human beings are given the acceptance as children but that acceptance is conditional in nature. As a consequence, when people grow up, they behave in a manner to let themselves accepted by others. However, when they seek to get acceptance in such a way, people are found to behave in ways that do not match with their true self. Thus, when people act according to what they experience in early lives, they become disturbed in finding their real self and the ideal self. This contradiction makes them either secluded or alienated. Last but not the least, existential theory believes in individuals’ capability to write the stories of their life themselves by making appropriate choices.

It is to be noted that both freud’s pyschoanalytic theory and client-centered approaches are criticized to have certain inadequacies when it comes to practical applicability.

References

Diem-Wille, G. (2011). The Early Years of Life: Psychoanalytical Development Theory According to Freud, Klein and Bion. London: Karnac.

Gurman, A. S., & Messer, S. B. (2003).Essential Psychotherapies: Theory and Practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Kasschau, R. A. (1985). Psychology: Exploring Behavior. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs. Print.

Kitano, M. K., & LeVine, E. S. (1987). Existential theory: Guidelines for practice in child therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 24(3), 404-413. doi:10.1037/h0085732

personality from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. (2013). Questia. Retrieved August 3, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-persnlty/personality

 
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Introduction

Multiple personality or dissociative disorder is an extremely uncommon mental disorder in which an individual has two or more different personalities.  Each of these personalities has unique characteristics such as mind-set, emotions behavioral patterns. This change takes place in sudden switches when the patient is triggered by painful events or miserable memories. Each personality is perhaps completely unaware about the others. However, the person is usually acquainted with the fact that there were mysterious gaps in times he/she remembers (“multiple personality,” 2013).

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, dissociative disorders are  “characterized by the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states, each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self, that recurrently take control of the individual’s behavior” (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

It was in the nineteenth century that Pierre Janet, a renowned French physician, recognized and explained multiple personality/dissociative disorder for the first time. The reason behind the development of multiple personality disorder is still not evidently understood. However, this rare condition is almost always linked with rigorous physical abuse and abandonment during the early years of a person’s life. It is widely acknowledged that amnesia i.e. the loss of memory is the main factor due to which separate personalities are formed. Amnesia is believed to occur as a psychosomatic obstruction to cordon off excruciatingly agonizing experiences from one’s conscious mind. People with dissociative disorder are found to have mild to severe social and emotional mutilations. Thus, dissociation acts “as a creative survival mechanism in the face of overwhelming trauma, whereby the mind shields itself by segregating the experience, or splitting it off into its constituent parts rather than experiencing it as what would be an unendurable ‘whole’” (Spring, 2011).

Dissociative disorders have been categorized according to their severity. The severity spectrum is based on the extreme chronic traumas the person experienced as a child. Thus, Post-traumatic stress disorder is considered as the least extreme dissociative disorder whereas dissociative identity disorder is regarded as the most extreme. Other dissociative disorders between the mentioned ones are dissociative loss of memory/forgetfulness (amnesia), dissociative fugue, de-personalization disorder, de-realization disorder and DDNOS. DDNOS is the dissociative disorder not otherwise specified in which a person is unable to call important personal information to mind that is excessively general to be elucidated by normal absentmindedness/lack of memory (Spring, 2011).

Treatments and Drugs

Dissociative disorders require continuing, tête-à-tête and relationally based psychiatric therapy as the primary treatment choice. However, it depends on various factors for instance the client’s functioning capacity, assets, support and inspiration. Some clients need to be dealt with for a longer period (more than an hour). In general, it may take the therapy to extend for 5 years or more. Psychotherapists make use of miscellaneous techniques to treat dissociative conditions. These techniques include “cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and sensor-motor psychotherapy” (Spring, 2011).

It is extremely important to mention here that a therapist must adjust EMDR protocols to work with dissociative identity disorder. This is because if a doctor is not familiar with standard EMDR treatment and dissociative disorders, his unskilled methods may lead to harmful overflow of hurtful matter and consequent decline of the mental health of the client.

Medication/Pharmacological Treatment

Till date, no medications have been found to particularly treat such disorders of dissociation. However, doctors all around the world recommend their dissociative patients to treat the disorder with antidepressants, medications to curb anxiety or tranquilizers. In the early phases of PTSD, pharmacotherapy is used to treat dissociative disorders. It has been found that the major symptoms of PTSD are re-experiencing, chaotically awakening, and forestalling. Co-morbid symptoms of PTSD comprise of anger, violent behavior, impulsivity, misery, fright, substance abuse, and feelings to have nothing to live for.

Medication is found to have an outcome on both primary and co-morbid symptoms of PTSD. PTSD is thus treated with “selected serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and the serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)” (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000). Clonidine is another medication that is found to lessen the symptoms of disturbing nightmarish dreams, invasive memories, manic alertness, sleeplessness, frightening responses and mad flare-ups. Moreover, anticonvulsants are also employed to treat mild dissociative disorders. Naltrexone can significantly reduce the length and strength of dissociative symptoms. It is especially useful for patients who have borderline personality disorder (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000).

Psychotherapy

For dissociative disorders, psychotherapy is the most important treatment. The other names for this therapy are talk therapy or psychosocial therapy. A client talks about his/her disorder and the problems related with it with the therapist in this treatment. It then becomes the responsibility of the therapist to help the client in understanding the cause of his/her condition. The therapist also has the responsibility of helping the client to find ways to deal with the hurting and depressive situations. Most of the times, various techniques are involved in psychotherapy such as hypnosis.

Hypnosis helps a client by making him/her remember and solve the problem by working through the disturbance that triggers his/her symptoms of dissociation. In hypnosis, the therapist creates a condition of deep rest for the client that quiets his/her mind. When the client is hypnotized, he/she starts concentrating on a particular idea, reminiscence, sensation or feeling in an intense manner at the same time as the distractions are blocked. However, hypnosis can only be conducted by a trained therapist as a corresponding method for treating patients with dissociative disorders.

It is important to note here that the course of psychotherapy may take a really long time that is also rather disturbing and hurting. However, a number of researches show that this treatment approach is the most effective for the treatment of dissociative disorder as it helps the clients to combine their disconnected personalities (“Dissociative Disorders: Treatments and Drugs”, 2011).

Creative Art Therapy

In this kind of treatment, creative processes such as art, dance, music etc. are used for helping those clients who have problems when asked to express their thoughts and share their emotions. Creative art therapy is a technique by which an individual is helped to increase his/her sense of self. It also helps people in coping with dissociative symptoms and incidents of trauma by encouraging positive changes (“Dissociative Disorders: Treatments and Drugs”, 2011).

Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive therapy is another effective treatment for dissociative disorders as it is that kind of talk therapy that helps the clients in the recognition of detrimental and pessimistic attitude and behaviors.  After identification of such off putting behavioral patterns, clients are helped in replacing them with mindset that is positive, optimistic and delightful. Cognitive therapy is founded on the notion that an individual’s thoughts are the determinants of his/her behavior and behavior is not controlled by others. It teaches the client that even if a startling and unwanted circumstance has not changed; one can change his/her thoughts and attempt to bring positivity in his/her behavior to cope with the situation (“Dissociative Disorders: Treatments and Drugs”, 2011).

As mentioned above, systematic desensitization and flooding are brought in use to treat PTSD patients. They have an effect on the patient as they minimize re-experiencing and hyper-arousal. Prolonged Exposure is the best effective method for the reduction of dissociative disorder symptoms during the early stages of therapy. As far as rape victims are concerned, the best treatment option for them is Cognitive processing therapy (CPT). SIT, assertiveness training, and supportive psychotherapy are other therapeutic methods that are successful in reducing suffering, evasion, and disturbance by improving an individual’s eloquence and self-worth (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000).

Behavioral Technique

It is exceedingly important to mention here that it is not safe to use every behavioral technique with individuals who suffer from dissociative disorders. It is being recommended that adjunctive cognitive therapy and medications must be active to stop and treat patients in case of any complications (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000).

The use of cognitive-behavioral techniques in group therapy is also a useful method to treat patients with dissociative disorder. It helps the group members to address feelings of estrangement, loneliness, vulnerability, and lack of dependence. Group therapy helps them to validate their feelings. As a consequence, there is an increase and improvement in their interpersonal and communal competency. Group therapy is especially helpful for patients who were being sexually abused so that they may heal themselves through learning and cognitive training. Cognitive restructuring helps patients to lessen their propensity to dissociation. Moreover, Psychodynamic psychotherapy is another treatment approach that is used for gaining insight into the gist of the symptoms associated with dissociation. It is useful for helping patients to feel less conscientious and guilty for the suffering (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000).

Conclusion

People with dissociative disorders are traumatized by the past incidents. This is the reason why they come to therapy hurt and terrified. They are sure of the fact that they cannot trust anyone as everyone is dangerous and insensible. A majority of such patients view themselves as worthless due to damaged self-concept. They have a shattered sense of security that makes them feel in the mentioned ways. Therefore, it is exceedingly imperative for the therapists to give these patients enough time that can allow them to establish a trustworthy relationship. It is also the responsibility of the therapist to offer a safe holding environment to his/her patients. The provision of a safe therapeutic environment allows such patients to restore feelings of trust and lessen their sensory warp and abandonment. The major goal of the therapy is to help the clients find the guts and develop valor to breathe and survive in a tentative world that is frequently dangerous and non-supportive (Kreidler, Zupancic, Bell, & Longo, 2000).

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (4th edition, text revision — DSM-IV-TR). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000.

Dissociative Disorders: Treatments and Drugs. (2011, March 3). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved August 19, 2013, from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/dissociative-disorders/DS00574/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs

Kreidler, M. C., Zupancic, M. K., Bell, C., & Longo, M. B. (2000). Trauma and Dissociation: Treatment Perspectives.Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 36(2), 77. Retrieved August 18, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1G1-66107329/trauma-and-dissociation-treatment-perspectives

multiple personality from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. (2013). Questia. Retrieved August 18, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-multipers/multiple-personality

Spring, C. (2011). A Guide to…Working with Dissociative Identity Disorder. Healthcare Counselling & Psychotherapy Journal, 11(4), 44-46.

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There are a number of ways by which people are affected tremendously by population density and noise. When people disregard other people’s privacy, personal space and territory with long-lasting noise, it may have an effect in a variety of ways ranging from mere frustration to harsh interfering depression-causing infirmities (Straub, 2007). With the increase in population, personal space, privacy and territorial confidentiality of people are encroached. This may require demand recognition of housings for the prevention of the psychosomatic consequences of population mass. Such circumstances also necessitate the prevention of hostility, fretfulness, and annoyance. In order to understand the effects of population mass and noise on the individual, it is exceedingly important to first understand the three concepts of personal space, privacy and territoriality, privacy, and personal space.

Privacy, Personal Space and Territoriality

As far as the notion of privacy is concerned, it is a right of every individual. According to Columbia Encyclopedia, the right of privacy is “the right to be left alone without unwarranted intrusion by government, media, or other institutions or individuals” (“privacy, right of,” 2013). Privacy includes various things. It includes having power over facts about oneself and controlling one’s interactions and communication with other people (Hutchinson & Kowalski, 1999). In today’s contemporary world, the introduction and usage of new technologies have raised concerns regarding the management and organization of information about other people.

When personal space is discussed, it simply means an unwritten and noncontact medium of communication that is held, preserved and updated by every person who reacts in case of the violation of this space by other person. It can be said that in order to maintain one’s privacy, a person uses personal space and territoriality as two significant methods.

According to various researches of neuroscience, it is the human brain that principally creates and mediates the personal space. While circumstances cause shifts in boundaries, personal space is of immense importance and consequence to everyone (Kennedy, Gläscher, Tyszka, & Adolphs, 2009).

Third Concept

The third concept that needs to be understood is that of territoriality which means the “actions or behaviors that often emanate from psychological ownership for the purposes of constructing, communicating, maintaining, and restoring one’s attachment to an object” (Brown, Lawrence & Robinson, 2005). It includes strong precautionary and imprudent behaviors for a short term covering observations and opinions, employment and protection of places, community, things, and thoughts. Territoriality is equipped to gratify certain major and minor situations important for people and society.

Particular behaviors of people help them in keeping space. Such specific behaviors in human beings make them strong enough to use their capacities for attacking and displaying violence and maintaining other characteristic reactions when their personal space and privacy is disturbed. According to recent researches in this area, scientists have given great emphasis on the presence of natural variables that play a major part in the determination of territorialism. It is important to mention here that with the limitation of the availability of critical resources, personal space and belongings are guarded by people with more heartiness and dynamism.

Concept of Privacy and Personal Space

Thus, the concepts of privacy, personal space and territoriality have turned out as increasingly important factors with the density of populations with the passage of time. Population density makes people to feel limited and restricted as necessities of life are not available in abundance. Population masses serve as a major factor in the development of aggressive behaviors, social abandonment, greater incidents of criminality and improper social dealings.

Therefore, if the symptoms of crowding are to be decreased, it is exceedingly important to take necessary steps for the preservation of privacy and personal space. Not only this, it is also the need to recognize and respect territoriality as an essential collective need of the Homo sapiens. With the decrease of physical space, more acknowledgment shall be given to privacy and personal space so that the psychological effects can be prevented. This is because the absence of privacy and personal space makes people less powerful, more competitive and negative even in tolerable circumstances. In case of the availability of ample space, it has been observed that people feel stronger and have power over their surroundings making them anxiety-free and relaxed.

Impact on Natural Environment

People who live in urban areas are affected by natural environment in several ways. When natural settings managed by human beings are considered, parks, green areas and zoos prop up in mind instantly. These managed settings are a great source for creating support and collective environment for people so that they may interact with the natural world. This kind of interaction not only makes contact with the natural surroundings possible but also it provides a basis for the environmental identity to foster. This is extremely advantageous as environmental identity is almost always gets withdrawn in metropolitan areas.

The existence of parks and zoos in the urban living settings are a motivational factor for people inspiring them to participate in the management and preservation of nature. People are influenced by the natural environment as a consequence for the reason that the natural settings result in the reduction of diseases, health promotion, community health support and minimization of criminal activities. These theories are consistently proved by the modern-day evidence. Parks in urban settings play a major role in the maximization of physical commotions and people have minimal health issues. It is also a verified fact that people whose places are near greener areas had lesser death rates. In addition, green space reduces the noise stress in cosmopolitan areas. Greener localities affect the behavioral patterns of people as well by endorsing fewer levels of aggression and violence due to close communication among people. Not only this, such green setting also result in excellent academic achievements and more positive public relations bringing the community members closer to each other.

Noise Effect and its treatment

Individuals are also affected by noise in a number of negative ways. According to the research done in health psychology, it has been revealed that recurrent noisy settings affect the health of people in a damaging manner. This is because noise makes people stressed. Cardiovascular diseases also develop and learning abilities are also hampered due to noise as people are distracted with continuous clamor and clatter in their surroundings.

Noise especially affects children and effects them by disrupting their maladaptive skills by which they are able to block particular stimuli. This results in various problems as children are not capable of completely understanding how they should respond to specific stimuli. Thus, noise makes it impossible for children to identify the stimuli that may help them in learning experience. By blocking noise, it also becomes impossible for children to develop their verbal skills as blockage may also block verbal elements. Loud noises can also disturb the short-term memory and the ability to carry out simple tasks is also reduced. Every person has a different ability to assess and judge noise. It is also important to note here that stress is not directly caused by noise. However, noise has severe effects on the sleeping patterns of people and is also responsible for provoking anxiety.

It is a good thing, that by composing various strategies, noise can be reduced. Noise can be mediated through placement of fabric. The noises that come from outside the house and cannot be controlled. This can be reduced by the fixing of extra fabrics on windows. It can also be installed on walls and other furnished materials. Glass allows noise to travel inside so it is better to cover windows with fabric layers. Noise can also be reduced through auditory masking. Cheap sound masking machines can be bought and installed easily.

Mental Health Issues

Noise pollution is a hot issue in the contemporary world especially in the urban areas as it has imposed significant threats for the mental and physical health of human beings. This is the reason why it is necessary to combat against it at various levels. Firstly, it is the responsibility of the administrative authorities to reduce noise by employing legislative measures against noise pollution. Secondly, employment of active measures is also indispensable for reducing the number of sources that generate noise or by reducing the intensity of the generated noise. Last but not the least, passive measures are also essential for the attenuation of noise by reducing the level of noise intensity on its way of propagation to receptor.

Conclusion

To cut a long story short, population density, noise and space are various environmental factors by which people are affected easily. However, if people are well-prepared to fight against the negative effects of the mentioned environmental elements, the stress in life can be minimized. It is a great thing that there have been consistent progressions in the cause of combating with noise pollution. The public awareness has been tremendous as people are acquainted with the various biological and psychological harms of noise. Ordinances are being passed in more and more cities and their enforcement is made certain. It is exceedingly important as the society can only advance if honest and determined actions are guaranteed to make a difference. It is not an untold secret that the power of people can surely initiate an environment where health and fitness of people may nurture.

References

Brown, G., Lawrence, T. B., & Robinson, S. L. (2005). Territoriality in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 30(3), 577-594.

Clayton, S. & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hutchison, E. D., & Kowalski, S. (1999). Dimensions of Human Behavior: Person and Environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Kennedy, D. P., Gläscher, J., Tyszka, J. M., & Adolphs, R. (2009). Personal Space Regulation by the Human Amygdala. Nature Neuroscience, 12(10), 1226-1227. doi: 10.1038/nn.2381

privacy, right of from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. (2013). Questia. Retrieved August 25, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/read/1E1-privacy/privacy-right-of

Straub, R. O. (2007). Health Psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth.

 
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